FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS – part 4, Mārga

Mārga/Dō 道 – “road/path/way”

‘Mārga’ literally means ‘path/way’ and is the path or way that leads to nirodha and Nirvāṇa. Other common names include Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga, meaning the ‘Noble Eightfold Path’, Aṣṭasamyaṅmārga, meaning ‘Eight Right Paths’, and less commonly, Buddhamārga, meaning ‘Buddha’s path’ and Madhyamārga, meaning the ‘Middle Path’. The eight comprise of the following;

八正道

1. samyagdṛiṣṭi – “right view”

2. samyaksaṃkalpa – “right intention”

3. samyagvāc – “right speech”

4. samyakkarmanta – “right action”

5. samyagājīva – “right livelihood”

6. samyagvyāyāma – “right effort”

7. samyaksmṛiti – “right mindfulness”

8. samyaksamādhi – “right concentration”

These eight are described in the sūtras as both progressive and holistic. On many occasions the Buddha would describe how the path begins with “right view”, which then leads to and supports “right intention”, when then leads to and supports “right speech, action and livelihood”, which then leads to and supports “right practice, mindfulness and concentration”. In other sūtras these eight are described as mutually supporting each other, and so can be viewed as a holistic and continuous practice. In commentaries, these eight are put into three categories; ethics (śīla), meditation (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā).

1. Ethics;

      a. Right Speech

      b. Right Action

      c. Right Livelihood

2. Meditation

      d. Right Effort

      e. Right Mindfulness

      f. Right Concentration

3. Wisdom

      g. Right View

      h. Right Intention

In the Tendai scheme of things, the Eightfold Path is not just practical, being part of the Thirty Seven Factors of Enlightenment 三十七道品, but also is an expression of ultimate reality (實相) as interpreted through the Lotus Sūtra and Zhiyi’s philosophy of the Three Truths (三諦) and Three thousand Realms in  Single Thought/Moment (一念三千). According to Zhiyi, the Eightfold Path is fully present in each thought or moment of mind, thus according to Tendai, the practice of the Eightfold Path reveals what is already present.

Four Ways of Understanding the Four Noble Truths

In the Moho Chih-Kuan 摩訶止観 (Maka Shikan), Zhiyi proposes four ways of understanding the Four Noble Truths. But first, let us look at how he interprets the reasons behind “noble” and “truth”.

What is translated into English as “Noble” is the Sanskrit “ārya” (ariya in Pali) which can also mean “worthy”, “honourable”, “excellent”, “wise”, “suitable” and many more other adjectives. The picture we are getting here is that these truths are praise worthy and to be held in high regard. In Chinese, Noble is translated as 聖 shèng, meaning “holy” or “sacred”. The word for truth, in Sanskrit is “satya” (sacca in Pali), which can also mean “genuine”, “valid”, “pure”, “honest”, “virtuous” and many more. In Chinese, Satya is translated as 諦dì, meaning “truth”, “meaning”, or “significance”. I can’t be sure that these are the exact words that Zhiyi used, but let’s assume these are correct.

Zhiyi gave only one reason for the word “noble” (sheng) – that is, they are noble in contrast with heretical teachings.

For “truth” (dì), Zhiyi gave three reasons;

  1. They are true because they refer to reality as it is, which is neither nothingness nor substantial being, whilst simultaneously empty and conventionally existing. “If dharmas have origination, they will have extinction. As dharmas essentially do not originate, they will not extinguish” (T’ient-t’ai Buddhism and Early Madhyamika, by Rujun Wu). This is the essence of the Middle Way.
  2. They are true because one gains insight into these four truths, which lead to enlightenment
  3. They are true because, through these four, one is able to manifest truth to others. That is, we become teachers of the dharma. (Foundations of T’ien-T’ai Philosophy, by Paul Swanson)

The Four ways of understanding the Four Noble Truths:

  1. Arising and Perishing (生滅四諦)
  2. Neither Arising nor Perishing (無生四諦)
  3. Immeasurable (無量四諦)
  4. Spontaneous/non-action (無作四諦)

These Four ways mirror Zhiyi’s classification of the sutras known as the Four Teachings (化法四教) (Tripiṭaka 藏, Shared 通, Distinct 別, and Perfect 圓) and tie into Zhiyi’s own understanding of the Dharma.

  1. Arising and Perishing, is the understanding by those who still haven’t perceived the ‘real*’ truth, because their understanding of the Four Noble Truths is still with a dual mind – that is cause and effect, start and end, arising and perishing etc. (*real here is understood as the Middle Truth in the Tendai philosophy). In Zhiyi’s classification, this corresponds with the ‘Tripitaka’.
    According to this level of understanding, the Four Noble Truths are seen as literal, that duḥkha truly arises, that duḥkha has causes, that duḥkha can be eliminated, and that the path truly leads to the cessation of duḥkha. This corresponds to the Truth of the Relative in Zhiyi’s Three Truths schema, and to the path of the Śrāvaka.
  2. Neither Arising nor Perishing, is the understanding by those who have a basic, rudimentary understanding of the ‘real’ truth, because they have an understanding of the Four Noble Truths in terms of śūnyatā (emptiness). That is to say, they understand the Dharma is empty of an eternal, substantial being, but have yet to fully penetrate it. This corresponds to the ‘Shared teaching’ and the Mahayana teaching on sunyata.
    According to this level of understanding, seen through the lens of emptiness, duḥkha lacks inherent existence, causes lack inherent existence, cessation lacks inherent existence, and the Path lacks inherent existence (see the Heath Sūtra). This corresponds to the Truth of Emptiness in Zhiyi’s Three Truths schema, and to a basic Mahāyāna path.
  3. Immeasurable, is the understanding by those whose understanding of emptiness is flawed, so they are caught up in the relative existence and only understand the Four Noble Truths in terms of phenomenal appearances. It is understood as immeasurable because the variety of delusions associated with this understanding is innumerable, therefore there needs to be innumerable (immeasurable) teachings to overcome our delusion. This corresponds to the ‘Distinct teaching’ and the Mahayana teaching on relativity.
    According to this level of understanding, there are infinite forms of duḥkha, which have infinite causes, meaning there are infinite cessations of the causes, necessitating infinite Paths. This can be seen reflected in the Bodhisattva path and in sūtras that state the Dharma’s are immeasurable and their meanings are immeasurable (see the Lotus Sūtra). This stage integrates emptiness and relative truths with compassionate activity, however it lacks true wisdom, and is the path of the Bodhisattva.
  4. Spontaneous, is the understanding is beyond words and conceptualization. It is spontaneous because “there is no conceptualization, no thought, no-one who creates or makes”. The Four Noble Truths are not something attained, but instead are already inherent in reality itself. According to the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, sentient beings are themselves nirvāṇa.
    According to this level of understanding, reality is already nirvāṇa (i.e., saṃsāra is nirvāṇa). This corresponds to the ‘Perfect teaching’ and the Middle Truth of the Three Truths schema, and the path of the Buddhas.

However, Zhiyi does not stop there with his understanding of the Four Noble Truths. He says that to fully penetrate them, we need to understand that these different ways are also one whole, not separate. He also goes on to classify the Four Noble Truths in terms of the Five Flavours, their ultimate unity and finally, as a contemplation in ‘Three Thousand Worlds in a Single Thought’ 一念三千 (ichinen sanzen).

Four Noble Truths and the Five Flavours (五味)

Stemming from the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, Zhiyi used the metaphor of five stages in the process of milk as a description of the Five Periods of the Buddha’s Dharma. He then applied schema to the Four Noble Truths and another dimension of practice and understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

  1. Fresh Milk (乳味): Represents the Avatamsaka Sutra (Flower Garland period), taught immediately after enlightenment. This teaching was “immediate” but inaccessible to all but the most advanced bodhisattvas, and reveals the Four Noble Truths as ‘spontaneous/non-action’
  2. Cream (酪味): Represents the Agama Sutras (Deer Park period) and reveals the Four Noble Truths as ‘arising and ceasing’.
  3. Curds (生酥味): Represents the Vaipulya (Correct and Equal) period, the early Mahayana teachings and reveals the Four Noble Truths as ‘neither arising nor perishing’.
  4. Butter (熟酥味): Represents the Prajñaparamita (Wisdom) period, and reveals the Four Noble Truths as ‘immeasurable’.
  5. Ghee (醍醐味): Represents the final, supreme teaching of the Lotus Sūtra and Nirvana Sūtra (Lotus-Nirvana period), the Perfect integration of the Four Noble Truths as ‘spontaneous/non-action’.

Although similar to the Four Ways previously described, what we should notice here is that ‘Fresh Milk’ and ‘Ghee’ are both described as ‘spontaneous/non-action’, even though in this schema ‘fresh milk’ is the “lowerst” and ‘ghee’ is the “highest”. Zhiyi likened the Avataṃsaka Sūtra to the rising sun, illuminating only the highest of mountain peaks, thus although it contains ultimate truth it is incomprehensible to ordinary beings. ‘Ghee’ is fully clarified and the final stage of the process. Represented by the Lotus Sūtra and Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, it is fully integrated and universally accessible as it opens the provisional teachings, merging the three vehicles into one, revealing the ‘true’. In this sense, whilst the ‘beginning’ of the Buddha’s Dharma is technically the same as the ‘end’, it is also fundamentally different. This illustrates how the Buddha’s Dharma, and in this case the Four Noble Truths are all one whole teaching, only separated due to skilful means that arise due to the capacities and capabilities of sentient beings. The beginning takes us to the end, and the end takes us back to the beginning.

Four Noble Truths and the 3000 Realms in a Single Thought (一念三千)

The philosophy of the Ichinen Sanzen 一念三千(Three Thousand Realms in a Single Thought) deserves its own talk, however it can be briefly summarised as; ‘one thought contains the Ten Dharma Realms. Each of these contain the other, making 100 realms. Each of these contain thirty kinds of worlds making three thousand. All of these are contained within a single moment of mind – i.e., every single moment of mind contains all of reality.’

When applying this to the Four Noble Truths, Zhiyi stated that one single thought immediately contains suffering, origin, cessation and path. To break it down;

  1. Suffering exists within one thought – because the Ten Realms exist within one single thought/moment
  2. Origin exists within one thought – because ignorance and craving are mental activities
  3. Cessation exists within one thought – because the mind is inherently empty and luminous
  4. Path exists within one thought – because mind possesses wisdom

Therefore, the Four Noble Truths is not sequential stages but are simultaneous aspects of mind.

This truth can be realised through the contemplating one thought/moment of mind as immediately possessing the Four Noble Truths.

Four Noble Truths and the Three Truths

Similar to Ichinen Sanzen, the Three Truths (sandai 三諦) of Tendai deserves its own talk, but to describe it briefly; The Three Truths are based on Nāgārjuna’s Two Truths theory which states that all phenomena are both empty (kū 空) and exists in a relative sense (ke 仮). Zhiyi expanded that by adding a third truth simply called ‘The Middle’ (chū 中), which stipulates that both emptiness and relativity exist simultaneously and are in fact one single truth, i.e., ‘The Middle’.

We can apply the Three Truths to the Four Noble Truths;

  1. Emptiness (kū 空) / Śūnyatā
    1. Suffering is empty (kū 空)  – it lacks self, permanence and independence.
  2. Conventional (ke 仮)
    1. Suffering conventionally exists – despite being empty its effects can be felt. It has a real impact on our lives. It has a cause and it has and end.
  3. Middle (chū 中)
    1. Suffering is both simultaneously empty and real at the same time. These two aren’t mutually exclusive.

These three can be applied to all four of the Four Noble Truths with the aim of realising that Saṃsāra and Nirvāṇa are one and the same.

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