EIGHTFOLD PATH – part 1, RIGHT VIEW

RIGHT VIEW 正見 (SHŌKEN)

TECHNICAL OVERVIEW

Right View is often considered to be both the foundation of the Eightfold path and the guide to which we rely upon as we progress on the path. It is “right” because it leads to enlightenment, implying that “wrong” view doesn’t necessarily mean its bad, but means it ultimately does not lead to enlightenment.

The Sanskrit ‘samyag-dṛṣṭi’ is comprised of two words; Samyak (Pali: sammā), meaning ‘right’, ‘proper’, ‘true’, ‘thorough’, ‘complete’, etc. Dṛṣṭi (Pali: diṭṭhi), meaning ‘view’, ‘opinion’, ‘belief’, or ‘intellectual standpoint’.

This view, or knowledge is acquired not only through both study and practice of the Dharma, but also takes an element of faith to begin with. This knowledge is not intellectual but a deep level of insight which begins with insight into the Four Noble Truths.

“And what is right view? Knowledge with regard to stress, knowledge with regard to the origination of stress, knowledge with regard to the cessation of stress, knowledge with regard to the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress: This is called right view.” Maha-satipatthana Sutta DN22

Many question what ‘Right View’ entails, or what it includes – there are two ways to understand this; first by looking at how the Buddha described right view, and secondly how he described wrong view.

With regards to right view, the Buddha described two forms; Right View with “effluents” and Right View that is “noble”. These two can be simply described as Right View that concerns karma, rebirth, causality, etc, and Right View that transcends. Bhikkhu Bodhi describes these as “mundane” – that which deals with our behaviour, our karma, and our rebirth, and “supramundane” – that which deals with the realisation of the Four Noble Truths. The former comes at the start of our path, but the latter comes towards the end.

“And what is the right view with effluents, siding with merit, resulting in acquisitions? ‘There is what is given, what is offered, what is sacrificed. There are fruits & results of good & bad actions. There is this world & the next world. There is mother & father. There are spontaneously reborn beings; there are contemplatives & brahmans who, faring rightly & practicing rightly, proclaim this world & the next after having directly known & realized it for themselves.’ This is the right view with effluents, siding with merit, resulting in acquisitions.” Maha-cattarisaka Sutta MN117

In this sutta the Buddha describes Right View with effluents (mundane) is insight into reality, that there is karma and the results of karma, multiple worlds or planes of existence, rebirth, believing in our parents and trusting in sages who have experienced different worlds and rebirth, etc. In this sense, Right View is not just belief but understanding.

“And what is the right view that is noble, without effluents, transcendent, a factor of the path? The discernment, the faculty of discernment, the strength of discernment, analysis of qualities as a factor for awakening, the path factor of right view in one developing the noble path whose mind is noble, whose mind is without effluents, who is fully possessed of the noble path. This is the right view that is noble, without effluents, transcendent, a factor of the path.” Maha-cattarisaka Sutta MN117

In the same sutta, he goes on to describe Right View that is noble, as it strengthens our discernment and transcends the effluents. Because these second view transcends the former, I have seen many modern commentators suggest that the Buddha was actually rejecting the view of rebirth, however this doesn’t quite add up when we consider the Buddha viewed both these views (i.e., mundane and transmundane) as a requirement for our progression on the path and our enlightenment. This is further solidified when he describes right view in other suttas, and when he describes wrong view.

RIGHT VIEW AND DEPENDENT ORIGINATION

An important aspect of Right View is the 12 Links of Dependant Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda/Engi 縁起). Dependant Origination is a large and complex philosophy with numerous different interpretations and explanations, found in both sūtras and commentaries. At its most basic level it explains how one thing arises from another. On an intellectual perspective it shows how there is nothing permanent, or self made. On a psychological level it shows the workings of mind, of suffering, and the causes of suffering – thus it becomes one of the cornerstones of achieving enlightenment.

In the Sammaditthi Sutta (MN9), Venerable Sariputta answers questions on Right View, framed around the Four Noble Truths, the Six Senses and the 12 Links of Dependant Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda/Engi 縁起);

Discerning what is skilful and what is unskilful (in this text, following the five precepts, lacking greed, or hatred, etc, is described as skilful)
Discerning that which sustains us in Samsara (described in the sutta as “nutriment”; physical food, contact, intellectual intention & consciousness). This is essentially describing the four noble truths and the causes of suffering, but worded here as a form of sustenance that sustains our craving.
Discerning Duḥkha. Again, this is describing the Four Noble Truths, but this time from the viewpoint of Duḥkha.
Discerning Aging and Dying. Again, this is describing the Four Noble Truths, but this time with the view of understanding the cause of aging and death, and the end to aging and death.
Discerning Birth. Again, this is describing the Four Noble Truths, but this time with the view of understanding the birth, and the end to birth. This section is essentially speaking about the causes of rebirth and the end of the causes of rebirth.
Discerning Becoming. Again, framing the Four Noble Truths around Becoming – sensual becoming, form becoming & formless becoming. This is essentially speaking about the sense of self we create through our passions, our views, our ignorance and our conceit.
Discerning Clinging. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths – clinging to sense pleasures, to views, to precepts, to practice and to doctrine.
Discerning Craving. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses – craving form, craving sound, craving smell, craving taste, craving touch, & craving ideas.
Discerning Feeling. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses – feeling born from sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, & intellect.
Discerning Contact. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses – eye contact, ear contact, nose contact, tongue contact, body contact & intellect contact. (Contact is the sensation created from the coming together of object, sense organ, and the mind – i.e., it’s a recognition born from our senses and our minds)
Discerning Six-sense-media (ṣaḍāyatana). Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses – eye & visual forms, ear & auditory sounds, nose & odours, tongue & flavours, body & sensations, mind & thoughts/ideas.
Discerning Name & Form. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses, and the above elements of Dependant Origination.
Discerning Consciousness. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses, and the above elements of Dependant Origination.
Discerning Fabrication (saṃskāra). Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths and the Six Senses, and the above elements of Dependant Origination.
Discerning Ignorance. Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths, the Six Senses, and the above elements of Dependant Origination.
Discerning Fermentation (āsrava). Again, framed around the Four Noble Truths, the Six Senses, and the above elements of Dependant Origination.

In the Rice Seedling Sūtra (Śālistamba Sūtra) the Buddha says that “Bhikṣus, whoever sees dependent arising sees the Dharma. Whoever sees the Dharma sees the Buddha”, emphasising the importance that Dependant Origination plays in Right View, and giving one of the most concise descriptions in the Sūtras, describing all things as dependently arisen and thus without self.

In the Maha-cattarisaka Sutta (MN117) the Buddha describes how Right View is the forerunner to each of the other Eightfold Paths; When we have Right View and abandon Wrong View, we are better able to gain Right Effort. When we have Right View and abandon Wrong View, we are better able to gain Right Intention, and so on with the rest of the Eightfold Path.

In the Kaccayanagotta Sutta (SN12.15) we see an interpretation of Right View which aligns with the supramundane that we previously described. In this sutta, the Buddha describes how he sees the world as neither existing nor not-existing. Existence and non-existence are polarities and extremes and the Buddha teaches according to the Middle. This view, according to the sutta, does not deny the realities of Duḥkha, or the teachings to overcome Duḥkha, instead it reframes the teachings as a means to see through this dichotomy of existing and not existing.

Dṛṣṭyanuśaya and mithyādṛṣṭi refers to “wrong view” and represents one of the seven Anuśaya (tendencies of defilement), according to Abhidharma texts.

“And what is wrong view? ‘There is nothing given, nothing offered, nothing sacrificed. There is no fruit or result of good or bad actions. There is no this world, no next world, no mother, no father, no spontaneously reborn beings; no brahmans or contemplatives who, faring rightly & practicing rightly, proclaim this world & the next after having directly known & realized it for themselves.’ This is wrong view…”
Maha-cattarisaka Sutta MN117

So, we can say that having Right View isn’t simply believing in something, but it is also relinquishing certain beliefs. This Wrong View includes beliefs of nihilism, beliefs that karma isn’t real, beliefs that there are no other worlds, or attainment/birth of other worlds, as well as beliefs there are no sages who have achieved realisation, and so on. But Wrong View doesn’t quite stop there.

According to the Brahmajala Sutta (DN1) there are 62 Wrong Views that revolve around views of the self (ātman/anatman/muga 無我), of eternity, of annihilation, of causality, etc. These Wrong Views are often held by non-Buddhists but can be attained by Buddhists who have made spiritual progress, but have either misunderstood or been led astray. The 62 Views can be grouped as follows;

Beliefs in eternalism – views that the self is eternal, usually due to gaining clairvoyance enough to see past lives and worlds but believing this means the self is eternal or that the world is eternal.
Beliefs in partial eternalism – according to this sutta some people may gain the clairvoyance enough to see that they were once in the Heavenly planes and were around Maha Brahma and other gods, and upon seeing that they are still alive they mistake them for being eternal, perfect and all powerful, but believe us to be impermanent.
Beliefs in infinity or a finite end – this would seem paradoxical according to our modern, scientific beliefs as we often assume that if something is not infinite, then it must be finite. But the Buddha never actually declared the world to be infinite nor finite, nor did he say it is neither infinite nor finite, he simply asserted that these views are based on misunderstanding. The Buddha never gives a definite answer to either of these views. The wrong views are born from either seeing that the world will one day end and assume this will be the end of everything. Or from not being able to see the end of this world (or realms) and assume they must be infinite.
Agnostic beliefs – this is a self-deceptive way of thinking in which one avoids questions on whether there is karma, rebirth, on what is wholesome or unwholesome, etc. Instead saying that it can’t be known, or that it’s up to the gods, or up to the universe or other type deflective answers.
Denial of cause and effect – those who believe body and mind arise from chance and not from cause and effect, or those who believe there was only a single cause (i.e., a first cause)
Beliefs in an eternal self – believing that after death a self survives and is conscious and that this self has a form, or is formless, or is both form and is formless, that it is neither form or formless, that the self is infinite, that the self is finite, both infinite and finite, or neither infinite or finite, or that there is a unified consciousness, or a diversified consciousness, that consciousness is limited, or unlimited (boundless), that consciousness is always happy, that consciousness is always unhappy, that consciousness is both happy and unhappy, or neither happy nor unhappy, that consciousness is material or immaterial, both material and immaterial, neither material or immaterial, or that the subconscious is material or immaterial, both material or immaterial, neither material or immaterial, finite, infinite, both finite and infinite, neither finite nor infinite, etc, etc.
Beliefs of annihilation – believing in a self but one that only exist as a physical form born from our parents, and that upon death nothing more of us exists. Or believing in a self comprised of the sense, that perishes upon our death. Or believing in a self that is entirely mind made, and perishes upon our death. Or a self comprised of infinite space, and is annihilated at death. Or a self comprised of infinite consciousness, or nothingness, or neither perception nor non perception, either of which is annihilated at death.
Nirvana of here and now – such a person mistakes the pleasures of the senses for nirvana, or they mistake the first dhyana for nirvana, or they mistake the second, third, or fourth dhyana as nirvana.

In short, if your views align with karma, the Four Noble Truths, Dependant Origination, etc, then it is Right View. If your views don’t align with these then it is Wrong View. Wrong View keeps us in Samsara. Right View liberates us. However, despite this emphasis on Right View, we are taught not to cling to views, even if they are right. In this sense, the Buddha warns us not to get caught up in a “thicket of views”.

RIGHT VIEW FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF MAHĀYĀNA

Mahāyāna does not discard the classical understanding of Right View (as previously described), however it does substantially expand further on it, with its emphasis on emptiness (śūnyatā/ Kū 空), the non-duality (advaita/funi 不二) of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, the bodhisattva path (bodhisattva-caryā, bodhisattva-mārga/ bosatsu-dō 菩薩道), and the inseparability of wisdom (prajñā/hannya 般若/智慧) and compassion (karuṇā/jihi 慈悲), etc. These elements are not absent from the doctrines outlined in the Nikāyas/Āgamas, however the Mahāyāna gave more nuance, emphasis and expanded on them. In the Mahāyāna sense, right view is not just about correct concepts, but is also a direct realisation into the truth of reality through non-conceptual wisdom (nirvikalpa-jñāna/mu-fenbetsu-chi 無分別智), especially as later systematized in Yogācāra.

BODHICITTA – COMPASSION & WISDOM

In many Mahāyāna texts Bodhicitta (bodaishin 菩提心) is described as the core motivation of Buddhas. Put simply, Bodhicitta is the aspiration to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings. However, generating/raising Bodhicitta is the foundational catalyst of the Bodhisattva path, therefore we can describe it as a defining point of Right View according to Mahāyāna doctrine.

However, many masters have said that Bodhicitta cannot be generated without compassion (karuṇā/jihi 慈悲). When we generate the mind of wisdom (prajñā/hannya 般若/智慧) along with compassion, alongside insight into emptiness, we reach the fullest expression of Right View, giving rise to Bodhicitta.

EMPTINESS/ ŚŪNYATĀ/ KŪ 空

One of the most decisive doctrinal developments in Mahāyāna is the focus on ‘Emptiness’ (Śūnyatā/ Kū 空), which takes the doctrines of Dependant Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda/Engi 縁起), of Not-Self (Anatman/Muga 無我), and impermanence (Anityatā/Mujō shō 無常性), as universal attributes that are applied to all phenomena (dharmas), stating that all things are “empty” of ‘svabhava’ (jishō 自性) or an intrinsic or self-existing nature. Many people mistakenly believe that ‘emptiness’ is a form of nihilism and means that nothing truly exists, however this is not true. Nāgārjuna addresses this in his work by emphasising the importance of conventional reality (“conventional truth” saṃvṛti-satya/sezokutai 世俗諦) – that is despite being empty, things have an impact on people lives. Suffering has an impact. The Path to end suffering has an impact, etc.

This view became central to the Madhyamaka/ Mādhyamika (Middle) school of thought which states that;

Whatever arises dependently is empty
Whatever is empty is dependently arisen (prajñaptir upādāya/ Yaku-i-shi-kemyō 亦為是假名)
That itself is the Middle Way (madhyamā-pratipad/chūdō 中道).

NON-DUALITY

This Middle Way can also be found in the doctrine of non-duality, which describes the nature of reality as;

The idea that things truly exist is the Wrong View of eternalism (śāsvatavāda/shōju-ron 常住論)
The idea that nothing exists is the Wrong View of annihilationism (ucchedavāda/danken-ron 斷見論)
The Middle Way avoids these extremes and states that reality is dependant arisen and empty yet functional.

This harkens back to the teachings of the Nikāyas/Āgamas (e.g., Kaccānagotta Sutta SN 12.15) in which the Buddha said

“All exists’: this is one extreme. ‘All does not exist’: this is the second extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, the Realized One teaches by the middle way”

This and other similar instances became known as the Four Corners (catuṣkoṭi/ Shiku-funbetsu 四句分別);

Things exist
Things do not exist
Things both exist and do not exist
Things neither exist nor do not exist

This may seem like a frustrating non-answer, but what this is attempting to do is point out that reality cannot be truly defined by the ordinary mind. We must not fixate on the descriptions of reality and must, instead gain insight into the true nature of reality. These descriptions are thus tools.

THREE TRUTHS/ SANDAI 三諦

Drawing on Nāgārjuna’s teachings as transmitted through the Chinese Madhyamaka tradition, Zhiyi reformulated this into the Three Truths (Sandai 三諦);

All phenomena are empty (kū 空)
All phenomena provisionally exist (ke 假)
The Middle (chū 中), which is the non-duality of these two

At first glance this Three-Fold Truth looks to suggest that “things both exist and do not exist”, which is one of the Four Corners, and Wrong View. However, this is a common misconception, although many Tiantai/Tendai texts do indeed frame the Middle Truth in this way as a simplified or convenient explanation.

What the Middle Truth is actually stating, is that what is empty, and what is provisional, cannot be separated. These two realities are not isolations and do not cancel each other out. Therefore, the Middle Truth states that what is empty provisionally exists, and what provisionally exists is empty. We can see this same truth echoed in the Heart Sūtra, “Form IS emptiness, emptiness IS form”.

This teaching in Tendai is more than philosophy but is also a means to attain enlightenment through the realisation of each of these truths. Thus, Right View is the simultaneous contemplation of all three (Isshin sangan 一心三觀 – threefold contemplation in one mind): to see that phenomena are empty, provisionally functioning, and perfectly integrated in the middle truth.

These explanations of Emptiness, Non-duality, and the Three Truths are incredibly brief and will be looked at in more detail another time.

CONCLUSION

What has been suggested, but not made explicit is the difference between Right View in terms of concepts vs Right View in terms of realisation. We may intellectually understand the idea of ‘not-self’, however our actions often suggest that we are still embroiled in the “self”. No amount of study or intellectual postulation will cause us to achieve this deep level of realisation, which is why practice is incredibly important. According to Tendai doctrine, study and practice are like the two wings of a bird – if one is underdeveloped, the bird won’t fly.

As has been stated already, Right View isn’t just about having right beliefs, it is a cognitive shift to bring us to making the right decisions, which include our ethical conduct. With Right View we gain and understanding, through karma and dependant origination, our actions have consequences. We understand that greed, hatred and delusion are harmful not only ourselves but also other people. In essence, it is what causes us to generate compassion and bodhcitta, and causes us to cultivate Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, and Right Livelihood. This is why it is the bedrock of the Buddhist path.

The role of Right View is not just to give us a better idea of the workings of the world according to Buddhist doctrine. Its primary function is to correct our distorted views of reality. In this sense, the substance of Right View is so much more than metaphysical doctrine, but like a pair of prescription glasses, it aids us to see things as they truly are. Wrong View binds us to Samsara. Right View liberates us.

And just like a prescription, once they are no longer required they can be discarded. In this sense, as already briefly stated, it is important that we do not cling to these views. They are the tools to aid us in achieving enlightenment – do not mistake the tools for enlightenment itself.