Fulfillment of Prerequisite Conditions

The Nijūgo Hōben are a set of preparatory practices outlined by Tendai Daishi Zhiyi in his meditation text, Maka Shikan 摩訶止観 (Great Calming and Contemplation), and to a lesser extent in other texts, such as Sho Shikan 小止觀 (Small Calming and Contemplation).

方便 Hōben – Expedient, ‘upaya’ (upaya-kauśalya) in Sanskrit, refers to a means to an end, but not the end itself. Can also be understood as a support or framework of practice. Can be applied to both practice and teachings/philosophy. Sometimes used as hyperbole or as a polemic device.

These 25 are preliminary based on the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra by Nagarjuna. They are broken down into 5×5 practices; Five conditions of practice, Overcoming five desires, Abandoning the five hindrances, Adjusting five things, and Five elements of practice.

具五縁 Gugo-en – Five Conditions of Practice

Maintaining precepts, having proper clothing & food, living in a quiet place, renouncing the mundane world, finding a good teacher/becoming a Kalyāṇa-mitratā.

具 ‘Gu’ – Tool

五 ‘Go’ – Five

縁 ‘En’ – In Chinese ‘connection’/’affinity’, but refers to the Sanskrit ‘pratyaya’ which means ‘conditions’ and can be understood as ‘causes’. According to the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra by Nagarjuna, there are four conditions;

Causal condition, hetu-pratyaya
– 12 Causes and Conditions
Immediately preceding condition, samanantara-pratyaya
– Usually referring to mental activity
Object condition, ālambana-pratyaya,
Dominant condition, adhipati-pratyaya.

Maintaining precepts (to purify the mind) – Jikai Shōjō 持戒清浄
Zhiyi quotes the Legacy Teachings Sūtra (遺教経) which states that morality directly supports meditation and wisdom. These three sections also describe the Eight Fold Path, with right speech, right action, right livelihood representing morals/ethics, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration representing meditation, and right view, right resolve representing wisdom.

Zhiyi describes three categories or “levels” of people and their precepts;

Superior level – High sense of morality. those who, before encountering the Dharma, have never committed the Five Grave Offences, and after encountering the Dharma, take up either the Five (lay) , the Ten (novice), or full monastic vows.
1. Middle level – Don’t commit the Five Grave Offences, but do commit minor transgressions. With repentance and practice they are able to achieve a high level of morality.
1. Inferior level – Weak minded, continually break the precepts and commit transgressions, including the Five Grave Offences.

“Maintaining” correctly suggests that this is a continual practice, not a one-time event. Simply taking the precepts does not make us moral individuals – we need to work on it. Zhiyi further stipulates 4 sections of maintaining/practicing the precepts;

Naming the precepts – According to the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra there are ten types of precepts that follow the ‘Natural moral law’, and are present even if the Buddha isn’t;
1. ‘not lacking/faulting’ (不欠)
1. ‘unrefuted/unbroken’ (不破)
1. ‘not permeated’ (不穿)
1. ‘not mixed’ (不雑)
1. ‘following the Path’ (随道)
1. ‘without attachment’ (無著)
1. ‘praised by the wise’ (智所讃)
1. ‘having sovereignty’ (自在)
1. ‘in accordance with concentration’ (随定)
1. ‘complete’ (具足)

All other precepts are additional as they support the above, for discipline, or for the general appearance and decorum of the sangha, etc.

Upholding the preceptsClarifying the nature of the precepts.
‘Not lacking/faulting’ (不欠) means to follow the precepts that prohibit the Four Heinous Acts (killing, stealing, adultery & lying). The person who purely upholds all the precepts is described as ‘not lacking’. The person who breaks them is considered ‘faulty’.
‘Unrefuted/unbroken’ (不破) means to not violate the 13 Major (monastic) Prohibitions. The person who upholds the thirteen precepts is described as ‘unrefuted’. The person who breaks them is considered ‘broken’.
‘Not permeated’ (不穿) means to not commit crimes that require expiation from the sangha (prāyaścittikāḥ). The person who upholds the minor precepts is ‘not permeated’, like a watertight vessel floating on the ocean. The person who breaks these precepts is like a ‘ruptured’ vessel, slowly sinking.
‘Not mixed’ (不雑) means to follow the precepts that accompany dhyāna concentration (dhyāna-śīla), which are precepts that naturally arise in one’s mind when one’s meditation is at the “form-realm” level, such as any of the four dhyānas. If one follows the precepts and has no thoughts of breaking the precepts, they are considered ‘not mixed’. But, if you follow the precepts and have thoughts of breaking the precepts, then you are ‘mixed’.
‘Following the Path’ (随道) means to attain the ‘first realisation’ (stream-winner – Sotāpanna), following the path in accordance with true reality, destroying false views.
‘Without attachment’ (無著) means to attain the ‘third realisation’ (non-returner – Anāgāmi), having no attachments to conceptual delusions.
‘Praised by the wise’ (智所讃) & ‘having sovereignty’ (自在) are those bodhisattvas who practice for the benefit of others.

‘In accordance with concentration’ (随定) focuses on conventional reality (conventional/relative truth).

The “complete” (具足) are the ‘middle’, never without precepts, always displaying dignity, guiding and benefiting all living beings.

Revealing the signs of keeping the precepts.
‘Not lacking’, ‘unrefuted’, ‘not permeated’, & ‘not mixed’ is the mind that contemplates dharmas as born from causation.
‘Following the Path’, & ‘without attachment’ is the mind that contemplates dharmas as Empty.

‘Praising cognition’, ‘having sovereignty’, & ‘in accordance with concentration’ is the mind that contemplates dharmas as Provisional.
‘Complete’ is the mind that contemplates all dharmas as the Middle.

When we view dharmas as arising through conditions, we are able to ascertain what is “good” and what is “bad”. Thus, we take precepts in order to give up unwholesome actions of body, speech and mind (three actions/karmas). Having a “good mind” brings about wholesome actions. Having a “bad mind” brings about unwholesome actions, so we practice in order to remove the bad, and to carry out the good. This is duality.

When we view dharmas as empty, we view all dharmas as impermanent and having ‘not self’ (such as the five aggregates). By observing emptiness we abide by the principle of non-destruction and avoid the wrong views of externalism and nihilism (See Bhramajala Sutra – 62 wrong views).

When we view dharmas as provisional we understand that the dharmas are expedients, seeds of wisdom, guiding all sentient beings to wisdom. We do not become attached to the path or obsessed with it, preventing ignorance and delusion (by recognising names and appearances as names and appearances).

When we view dharmas as ‘the middle’, is to see reality as it is. The mind is still and unwavering, illuminating both the provisional and emptiness. One follows the precepts with the principle of the Middle Way of One Reality.

Avoid breaking the precepts

Our desires, our kleshas and our views can cause us to break our precepts.
With regards to avoiding breaking the precepts, Zhiyi quotes the Nirvāna Sutra; “O good man! Here is a man who wants to cross the sea on a floating bag. Then there is a rakshasa [flesh-eating demon] in the sea. He follows the man and begs the bag of him. Hearing this, the man thinks: “If I give [it him], I will certainly sink and die.” He replies: “O rakshasa! You can kill me, but you cannot have the floating bag.” The rakshasa says: “If you cannot give all of the bag to me, give me half.” But still the man will not give [him the bag]. The rakshasa says again: “If you cannot give me half, give me one third.” The man does not say “yes”. The rakshasa continues: “If you cannot, give me the bit where your hand rests, I shall be hard-pressed by hunger and worry. Please give me just a bit.” The man further says:

“What you seek to have is, indeed, not much. But I must cross the sea this very day. I don’t know how far it is. If I give [you] any part, the air will gradually go out. How could I [then] hope to cross this difficult sea? If the air goes out, I shall sink and die half-way.”

“O good man! The same is the case with the Bodhisattva who upholds the precepts. He is like the man who desires to cross the sea and who is very solicitous of guarding the floating bag and grudges [giving it away].”

In this example, the raksha represents our desires, our kleshas and other such intrusive thoughts. If we are not strong in our resolve, it is easy to give in to temptation. Even by giving in just a little to our desires, it is possible to “sink” and become lost in the sea of samsara. This imagery paints a bleak picture and only illustrates how important Zhiyi saw the precepts in our practice.

The practice of the precepts and the path is then split into four sections;

Proficient in both practice and precepts
Those who practice this way may attain nirvāna in this lifetime. Some, due to their karma may not attain nirvāna, but will still attain a higher rebirth.
1. Proficient in practice but lax in precepts
  Those who practice this way may be reborn in a lower realm.
1. Proficient in precepts but lax in practice
  Those who practice this way may be reborn in a deva realm.
1. Lax in both precepts and practice
  Those who practice this way may be reborn in the hell realms.
1. Repentance & purification
  Repentance and purification is an incredibly important practice, and this was especially so in Zhiyi’s time, with numerous repentance rituals being practiced. Even our lay gongyo is based around the practice of repentance.
  This practice is often overlooked by westerners as repentance is so connected with Catholicism that many feel it is not compatible with Buddhism. Nothing could be further from the truth.
  We are not perfect beings, and thus we will make mistakes in our practice of the precepts. For this reason it is important to be able be humble, to admit our mistakes, and then reaffirm our commitment to the precepts and to the dharma. Refusing to repent can be a sign off our own ego and attachments.
  In the Makashikan and other texts, Zhiyi goes into detail on how to repent and purify ourselves. First, we must understand how to recognise if we are lax with the precepts and in need of repentance/purification;
  
  10 Mental States
  1. We easily give rise to anger, greed, and delusion. We do this because we are attached to a strong sense of self, attached to our views, and our thoughts.
  1. We associate with deviant people, or with those who stimulate our self-centred minds.
  1. We are unable to rejoice in the goodness of others.
  1. We mistreat others in thoughts, words and/or deads, but try to justify our actions.
  1. We harbour negative thoughts of others, even if we don’t let them show.
  1. Our negative thoughts continue even in our sleep.
  1. We recognise our misdeeds but try to hide them from others.
  1. Due to our ignorance, we do not fear retribution.
  1. We have no remorse over our negative thoughts/words/deeds.
  1. We deny karma, believing our thoughts/words/deeds will have no effect on ourselves (and become icchantika)

The 10 means of overcoming this are;

Correctly believing in karma. This is to understand that our actions have consequences.
Harbouring a sense of remorse.
Fearing lower destinies/birth.
Confessing/repenting our misdeeds*.
Resolving to not commit our past misdeeds.
Arousing the aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta).
Cultivating merit (by doing good deeds of body, speech & mind).
Following the ‘true’ dharma.
Be mindful of the Buddhas in the Ten Directions (is to be mindful of unconditional compassion).
Contemplate the empty nature of offenses (do not cling to offenses).

*Confession/repentance should be done with the practice of getting rid of mistaken views, which can be done in 10 ways (Zhiyi called these “going against the flow of samsara”;

1. Contemplate suffering, and the causes of suffering.
2. Give rise to remorse by understanding cause and effect.
3. Having a healthy sense of fear by understanding the seriousness of our misdeeds.
4. Practice repentance of body, speech and mind.
5. Follow the Eightfold Path, and contemplate the Three Truths.
6. In considering the Three Truths, one arouses the aspiration for enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings.
7. Cultivate the Thirty-Seven Aids to Enlightenment (sanjūshichishu bodai funhō 三十七種菩提分法/sanjūnana dōhon 三十七道品)
8. Apply skilful means in order to uphold the dharma.
9. Continuously keep in mind the Buddha/s.
10. Contemplate perceptions as illusions – they do not come from any “place”, do not leave a mark after they are gone, and do not go to any “place”.

Having proper clothing & food – Ejiki Gusoku 衣食具足
Just as with the precepts, Zhiyi breaks down this practice into three categories;
- Superior – “Himālayan Great Sage” who wears only a single cloth to cover their body, who eats only the herbs and fruits that they find in their dwelling place.
- Middle – Wondering mendicant who only wears the Three Robes (i.e. traditional monastic robes, lower, upper & outer) and begs for food.
- Inferior – Either monastics who dwell in colder climates, or those with a low endurance, are allowed by the Buddha, up to 100 additional items, dwell in monasteries and have food provided for them.

Applying this as lay people, we can look at what it means to have “proper clothing”. ‘Gusoku’ 具足 can mean either ‘complete’ or ‘sufficient’. When you have all that you require, it is sufficient because it supports your needs, and it is complete because you do not need anything else. For monastics, that meant having enough to cover the body when cold. For lay people it will differ from person to person, but might be limiting how many of an item you have. Clothing can also support our practice, by being plain, simple and undistracting. Or perhaps we need bright colours in order to lift our mood after a stressful day at work. We can also apply this to food. When we view food as a means to sustain our bodies (and thus our practice), we are able to put aside our desires for certain flavours. However, as lay people, just like with clothing, we may sometimes eat that which lifts our moods.

Zhiyi also warns about practicing these (wearing robes, begging for food) for no reason other than for keeping up appearances. He then goes on to quote the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra in which the Buddha says “Although you are clothed in the robes of a monk, your minds are not yet dyed with the cloak of the Mahāyāṇa Dharma…. Although you bhiksus practice begging for food, you have not yet attained the food of the Mahāyāṇa Dharma”. For Zhiyi, this meant truly putting into practice the Three Truths, by avoiding the two extremes of too much and too little.

Living in a quiet place – Gengo Jōsho 閑居静処

Just as before, Zhiyi gives three categories;

Superior – Remote dwelling – such as mountains and/or cave
1. Middle – Hermitage dwelling – a secluded place at least one kilometre away from lay dwellings/people
1. Inferior – Monastery dwelling – a monastery that is set apart from lay dwellings.

Of course, neither of these are really applicable to lay people. Although ‘Gengo’ 閑居 refers to a quite, peaceful place, such as a hermitage, or mountain retreat, it can also refer to a state of mind in which one finds peace. Of course, a peaceful environment can massively improve our state of mind, therefore it can be useful to make our homes as peaceful as possible, whether that be through its furnishings, decoration, or simply keeping it clean, tidy and uncluttered.

Renouncing the mundane world – Sokusho Enmu 息諸縁務

Zhiyi describes four types of mundane worldly activities; work (livelihood), relationships, activities, & study. This list can seem to be contradictory, especially as something like study is so integral to the path. However, in Zhiyi’s text he was specifically talking to monastics. Work (livelihood) meant renouncing ones job and living as a mendicant. Relationships meant not having a spouse, a lover, and even leaving one’s family behind. Activities referred to the wrong livelihoods of monastics, such as divination, magic, and charms, etc. And study meant to not neglect practice, and not get caught up in debates, or ‘back and forth’ arguments.

In terms of applying to lay practice, we can look at the meaning of the term ‘Sokusho’ 息諸 which means to put to rest. We often carry our troubles around with us which only causes more suffering. Putting these troubles to one side, even if only for 30 mins of practice can be incredibly beneficial.

Finding a good teacher/Kalyāṇa-mitratā – Toku zen chi shiki 得善知識
Toku 得 means to gain access to, or to seek out. Zen chi shiki 善知識 means a good/virtuous friend, or kalyāṇa-mitratā in Sanskrit. According to Zhiyi, there are three types of kalyāṇa-mitratā; an external protector, a companion and a teacher.
a. An external protector is a person who provides the necessities needed for our practice, be that clothing, food, meditation cushions, temples, monasteries, etc. Such a person provides this without desire for compensation, and without any judgment or praise.
b. A companion is someone who either practices with us, or encourages and supports our practice.
c. A teacher is someone who both understands the dharma and is able to explain it to others. A teacher must also be experienced in practice of the dharma.
These three aren’t exclusive to the people we encounter. Zhiyi stats that according to the Pañcaviṃśati Sūtra, the numerous Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Vajra Kings, and other enlightened beings are our external protectors. The practice of the Six Pāramitās (giving, ethical discipline, patience, vigorous effort, meditation, and wisdom) and the Thirty Seven Factors of Enlightenment (sanjūshichishu bodai funhō 三十七種菩提分法/sanjūnana dōhon 三十七道品) are our companions. And Dharmatā (Dharma-nature – true nature of all reality) is our teacher.

呵五欲 Kagoyoku – Overcoming the Five Desires

Restraining and abandoning the five desires that arise from sight, sound, smell, taste & touch.

According to tradition, desire is what keeps us locked in samsara. We desire for the things we like, and we desire to not have the things we don’t like, which we can summarise as ‘want/don’t want’. It is also considered one of the most serious obstacles in our training, as it can become a huge distraction. Desires arise from our five senses, as we use these to not only navigate the world, but also to decide what we want, what we don’t want, what we like, and what we don’t like, etc.

A common means to desire less is to either remove the objects we desire, or to remove ourselves (to move away). For example, monastics will shave their heads, wear only three robes, and give up all possessions to learn to not desire these things. However, we must fall into the trap of thinking these objects “contain” desire. Desire is born from our minds, and whilst removing what we desire can help, sometimes the desire lingers. It is also possible, for someone with a high level of realisation, to have these “things” and yet not desire them.

Zhiyi, in the Maka shikan, describes four levels of renouncing desires;

Level of Tripitaka, through analysis

At this level, we can learn to renounce desires through meditation and analysis of our senses and sense organs. We can look at the arising and then perishing of our desire. We can see how it doesn’t linger, but instead withers and/or changes which each moment. We can then see that our desire has no substantial “self”. Just as the object (of our desire) has no substance, neither do we (the subject) have substance. Both existence and non-existence are mistaken views that we renounce, and se we renounce our desires.

Level of Shared Teaching, through direct realisation
At this level, we must realise our mistaken views (of existence, and non-existence) are also empty (without substantial “self”). We do not renounce desires when there are no real desires to renounce in the first place.
Level of Distinct Teaching, ‘re-entering’ the mundane world
Although desires are empty, how is it they can ensnare sentient beings, and how can we, as bodhisattvas, save beings from desires? Sentient beings build their world around their senses (and thus their desires), therefore a bodhisattva/buddha must skilfully build the ‘medicine’ to overcome these desires based on the parameters set by sentient beings.
Level of Perfect Teaching, the middle way
At this level, we are neither attached to the emptiness of desires, nor to the desires themselves. Some people will gain a hate for an object due to either their own desires, or the desires they see in others. This is the mistake of being attached to detachment. It is akin to extreme displeasure in the world. Similarly, there are those who claim to not be attached to their desires, but also will not give up their desires. The middle way is free from both attachment and detachment.

棄五蓋 Kigokai – Abandoning the Five Hindrances

Greed, hatred, sleepiness, restlessness, and doubt.

These five are a traditional set of hindrances of the mind (Pañcanivāraṇa) that can be found throughout Buddhist traditions, and essentially an expansion of the Three Poisons. Zhiyi describes the means of overcoming these hindrances, first by recognising the signs of these hindrances in ourselves, then the practice to overcome them. These hindrances/poisons are often so subtle that we do not realise them, and their appearance with each thought/moment. Sometimes they arise together, or individually.

Zhiyi describes the Five Hindrances, and how to overcome them as well as illustrating how they hinder Three Truths; With regards to the Truth of Emptiness, people can do not understand the conception of emptiness, becoming angry at what they oppose, and desire for what they approve. Without clear knowledge of their attachments they become drowsy. Their fruitless arguments and speculations cause restlessness and doubt. This is because they are attached to what they believe to be the true nature of reality, they give rise to doubt in the future when uncertainty inevitably arises.
With regards to the Truth of the Relative, people mistake the view of emptiness as the ultimate, as enlightenment itself. Infatuated with emptiness, they become averse to samsara and the people in it, generating anger and hatred at the world. The quiescence born through emptiness lacks empathy with the mundane world, causing sleepiness and restlessness. True wisdom of the path is never realised, which causing doubt.
With regard to the Middle Truth, those who yearn for, and seek out the dharma but are never satisfied are impeded by their desires (for the dharma). Due to their desire (for the dharma) they do not rejoice in the attainments of the two vehicles (Śrāvaka & Pratyekabuddha) which gives rise to anger. Although they may be a bodhisattva, having not correctly severed ignorance causes sleepiness and restlessness. Even if they have great insight into the nature of reality, due to due to not correctly severing ignorance they become inadequate at later stages, causing doubt.

Therefore, correctly working on removing these 5 hindrances right at the start of ones path will enable one to swiftly climb the Bodhisattva bhūmi’s and attain highest enlightenment.

Greed has been described in detail (above). ‘Rāga’, ‘tṛ́ṣṇā’ (‘tanhā’) and ‘lobha’ in Sanskrit, can all be translated as lust, greed, desire, thirst, etc, and is one of the Three Poisons. Kāmacchanda is attachment to sensory pleasure. Greed is considered a hindrance because our minds are often distracted by our desires, whether big or small. We can be attracted or attached to particular forms, to particular tastes, or smells, or perhaps we desire particular sounds, etc. In most people’s lives, there is no time in which we are not desiring something. Some people don’t realise that not wanting something is also a desire. The meditation on the vileness of the body (‘Fujōkan’ 不浄観 / A-śubhā-smrti) is considered the antidote to greed. Although this is specifically in reference to the body, we can also apply the same view to other things that we desire. A word of warning – it is important to be careful with this type of meditation as it can cause depression, dissociation and even hatred.
Hatred in Sanskrit is ‘dveṣa’ can also be translated as anger or aversion and is also one of the Three Poisons. In English, these three words – ‘hatred’, ‘anger’, ‘aversion’ – can have different connotations, but when looked at together, we can begin to see what dveṣa is referring to in Buddhism. Buddhist texts also use vyāpāda (evil intent) to describe hatred. Zhiyi describes hatred/anger as a poison that leaves a harmful residue on both oneself and on others. He also describes it as a resentment we feel when jealous of others. It is the opposite of kindness and compassion, therefore the meditation on compassion (‘Jihikan’ 慈悲観) is considered the antidote to hatred.
Drowsiness is ‘styāna-middha’ in Sanskrit, which is comprised of two words, ‘styāna’ which is ‘sloth/lethargy’, and ‘middha’, which is ‘torpor/sleepiness’. On a physical level, it is the tiredness of body and mind, usually due to too much activity, or too little activity, too much sleep, or too little sleep. However, it is also characterised by dull thoughts, a clouded mind, a difficulty in differentiating right and wrong, and/or aimlessness. Traditionally, the meditation on the interconnectivity of all things, aka dependant origination (‘In’nen-kan’ 因縁観) is considered the best activity for overcoming drowsiness. One can also think of the present moment, letting go of the past and future, as it is only in the here and now that we have any real control. Zhiyi also recommends meditation throughout the night under the stars.
‘Auddhatya-kaukṛitya’ is the Sanskrit for “restlessness-regret”. ‘Auddhatya’ can also be understood as excitement, as it is characterised by an excited mind, which can often have a physical appearance (of being unable to stay in one place, concentrate, or stay on topic). Such a person will inevitably experience regret/worry (kaukṛitya) as they are remorseful for not being able to practice efficiently. This regret is considered a hindrance as the mind gets caught up in mind games, “what ifs” and other such useless mental gymnastics. The traditional meditation to overcome this hindrance is mindfulness of breath (‘Susokukan’ 数息観), or more specifically Zhiyi suggests counting the breaths. By focusing on and counting the breaths, we learn to build our concentration, which helps overcome restlessness, which in turn overcomes regret. If we lose count, or our minds wonder, we can recognise the hindrance of restlessness, and refocus on our breath.
Doubt is ‘vicikitsā’ in Sanskrit, and can also be understood as “indecision”. Another Sanskrit word of doubt is ‘saṃśaya’. Zhiyi describes three types of doubt;
1. Doubt oneself. I know, if you are anything like me, you would have seen a lot of the hindrances described above in ourself, and you might be thinking “how am I possibly able to overcome these?”, and this is especially true for people with ADHD, dyslexia, and other things that might be out of their control. If one gives rise to self doubt, they should keep in mind how fortunate it is to be born as a human, and how even more fortunate it is to meet with the Dharma. We all carry the jewel of Buddha-nature, therefore we should cast aside this doubt and embrace the Dharma.
1. Doubt your teacher. Here Zhiyi quotes Śariptura who said “From now on, I will not [judge by people’s appearace and] say that this person will be reborn in samsara and that person will enter nirvāna”. This is because we are all guilty of judging others too quickly. We criticize the twig on another’s eye, whilst ignoring the log in our own. This is not to say that we must ignore the misbehaviour of our teachers. Instead, it is an understanding our teachers are also on the path, just as we are, and therefore their understanding (“appearance”) may not be perfect.
1. Doubt the Dharma. Until we have gained insights, we must rely on the Dharma through faith. Zhiyi quotes the Lotus Sutra saying “Śravakas do not have wisdom, so they enter [enlightenment] by faith”. Faith is the beginning of refuge, and the door of refuge. Without faith, there is no refuge. Therefore, faith in the dharma helps us overcome doubts in the dharma, until such time that we have gained the fruits of the dharma for ourselves.

Traditionlly, meditation on the dharma, on the teachings, and the various aspects of the dharma (‘Kai bunbetsu-kan’ 界分別観) is considered the antidote the doubt. Zhiyi also recommends Mindfulness of the Buddha (‘Nembutsu-kan’ 念佛観) as a means to overcome doubt.

Zhiyi furthermore describes these hindrances in detail and the importance of overcoming them. I will not be going any further in detail here.

調五事 Jōgoji – Adjusting the Five Things

Food, sleep, body, breath and mind

The first two practices are matters to be carried out outside of meditation. The last three are practice to be done when entering meditation, and adjusted whilst in meditation if required. Despite the first two being outside of meditation, they can directly impact the success of our meditation.

Adjust food (and drink). This can seem easy to understand – eat too much and you’ll become lethargic, bloated, you might feel sick, your body will make noises that disturb yourself and others, etc. Eat too little and the mind will be distracted with the feeling or even the pain of hunger. The body and mind will become weak and lethargic too. However, there are more subtle levels to this, such as eating that which nourishes us, that act as medicine. If we eat junk all the time, or limit our diet too drastically, we can become sick. Therefore it is important to correctly adjust food (which may be different for each individual).
Adjust sleep. Stranglely, too much sleep can cause the same effects as not enough sleep; tiredness, drowsiness, lethargy, distract thoughts. However, unlike food, we cannot make ourselves sleep more/less. Trying to force sleep has the opposite effect. The mind becomes distracted by thoughts and sleep doesn’t come naturally. Unlike the mental hindrance of drowsiness, the means to overcome too much or too little sleep is different. Adjusting food can help, as well as adjusting when we eat/drink. Exercise can also help induce restful sleep, but too much has the opposite effect. We should also try not to engage the mind too much before sleep too, such as study, or debate.
Adjust body. Adjusting the body is not separate from the breath and mind, as one supports the other. Zhiyi likens these three with the conception of a child in the womb, stating that there first must be warmth (body inherited from the parents), then life-force (breath), then consciousness (mind). A fetus that is missing these things (warmth/life-forece/consciousness) is not viable, just as a person missing these things (body, breath, mind) will not live. Although they may change, they remain with us from conception until death.
When we first enter meditation, we must adjust our body. It must be calm but not too relaxed. It must be responsive, but not agitated. The body should be upright, holding the correct posture with ease. If there is tension, the mind, breath and the body will not be at ease. Keeping the precepts allows one to be at ease in body (thus assisting meditation/practice).
Adjust breathing. Adjust the breath so it is not too fast, but not too slow. Not too loud and course, but not too smooth. Focus the mind on the breath. Do not force it.
Adjust mind. Adjust the mind so it is not too excited or too “depressed”. With breath and body regulated, one should be able to calm the mind. If the mind is too calm, or too agitated, try adjusting the body and/or breath.
These three things (body, breath, mind) should be continually adjusted throughout the meditation until it becomes “smooth”, like the fine tuning of the strings on a harp. Even the smallest of adjustments can have a big impact. Zhiyi states that regulating the body is a cause for keeping the precepts. Regulating the breath is a gate to samādhi. Regulating the mind is the cause of compassionate wisdom.

行五法 Gyō go-hō – Five Elements of Practice

Desire to practice, diligence, mindfulness, wisdom & single mindedness (concentration/devotion)

Zhiyi looks at various different texts and how they view these five elements. The ‘Satyasiddhi-shāstra’ (成実論 Ch’eng-shih-lun / Jōjitsu-ron, by Harivarman) states the first four are supplementary, with ‘single mindedness’ being the essence of meditation. The ‘Jeweled Necklace Sutra’ (瓔珞経 Ying lo ching / Yōraku-kyō, T.1485) states all five are supplementary, adding a sixth element. The Abhidharma and Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra (大智度論 Ta chih tu lun / Daichido-ron, T.1509, by Nāgārjuna) states that all five are the essence of meditation. It is these latter two that influences Zhiyi’s views, stating that these five elements need to be in balance in order to practice efficiently. And it doesn’t matter what school or tradition we follow, they apply to all.

Desire to practice or yearning. Most simply this means the desire or yearn to advance on the path to the first dhyāna stage.
Diligence. Overcoming the desires of this realm is incredibly difficult, therefore we need diligence. We need to be attentive to our physical and mental activity.
Mindfulness. Always be minful of the first dhyāna, and let other matters (unimportant matters) be let go of.
Wisdom/discernment. Firstly, we must be able to correctly discern what is ‘good’ and what is bad. For Zhiyi, this means to correctly differentiate between the first dhyana, recognising it as the means to “supremacy and sublime liberation”, whilst correctly recognising that the realm of desires is course, causes one to descend into suffering and contains numerous obstacles on our path. Once we can correctly differentiate, we can focus our attentions on the path, on the ‘right Dharma’ (Saddharma – Name of the Lotus Sutra).
Single mindedness. Correctly cultivating the practice, with whole intent (single mindedness) will surely help us overcome all other conditions and obstacles.

Zhiyi further views these five through the lense of the Three Truths;

Emptiness
1. Desire to practice. Means the desire to advance from saṃsāra to nirvāna.
1. Diligence. Means to turn away from the passions, seek awakening.
1. Mindfulness. Means to seek the “quiescence of nirvāna”.
1. Wisdom. Means to correctly discern between the faulty (saṃsāra) and the wise (nirvāna)
1. Single mindedness. Means to cultivate the Eightfold Path without distraction.
Conventionality
1. Desire to practice. Means to seek enlightenment for the sake of all living beings, not just our own.
1. Diligence. Means to not go back on our Bodhisattva vows.
1. Mindfulness. Means to be “saturated with compassion” for all sentient beings, without exception.
1. Wisdom. Means to utilise skilful means, to correctly discern what “medicine” should be applied.
1. Single mindedness. Means the determination to fulfil ones Bodhisattva vows and save sentient beings.
Middle
1. Desire to practice. Means to move beyond the two extremes and realise the Middle.
1. Diligence. Means to not be caught up in the two extremes.
1. Mindfulness. Means to contemplate reality just as it is.
1. Wisdom. Means to use skilful means to contemplate the Middle.
1. Single mindedness. Means to put an end to the two extremes, to duality, and to purify the mind.

CONCLUSION

Although described as ‘preparatory’, these practices should continue and be used to make adjustments as necessary. They are called ‘skilful means’ because they are not boxes to be ticket. Instead, we should try to be mindful of these elements, and do the necessary practices to help balance our practice. Zhiyi likens this to fine tuning a harp, which is in reference to to the Buddha’s discourse on the Middle Way, of finding a balance between extremes. In this same way, we may find that we have to pay more attention to a certain element or elements (described above), whereas others may not need to have much time spent on them. But we should not be laxed and assume that we do not need to do these things. Zhiyi describes this as balancing the ‘internal’ (meditative contemplation), with the ‘external’, and that these are both required for us to be able to attain insight.